In the II Millennium B.C. on the territory of Asia Minor there was the greatest of kings - Hittite. Fit for him were only Babylonia and Egypt. It was one of the first samples of a structured class society, stood for almost six centuries and crumbled under the swords of the foreigners. Fragments of his legacy now scattered around the world - formal and proudly Hittites, etched in stone and bronze, look at the museums of Germany, England, France, Turkey.

For example, carved in stone "Acrobats". One of them is going to climb the stairs, the second stands for security, and the third, it seems that blows the horn, attracting the attention of passers-by. But is it true that it acrobats? And suddenly that day nearly three thousand years ago, the Hittites was a great holiday, and inspired by master immortalized their heroes in ritual activities, where the staircase and the horn is not a circus props, and religious fetishes. Yes and horn?

Who is the biblical Hittites?

Reliability. In the Hittite she heritage that skilled mosaic, scattered on the Anatolian plateau: the more fragments collected, the more is left to collect. Clear the Hittite language is decrypted several hundreds of written monuments, relative to the known world order: the state structure, family relations, have the information about what they believed, who drew their prayers, who fought and were friends, knew how to sculpt, paint, that were grown and what they ate for lunch.

But who were their ancestors? About them, whether on the Hittites and the Hittites" - is mentioned in the old Testament? From where they came to Anatolia and really defeating the Hittites flies became their heirs?

There are many questions. But even with white spots disappeared inhabitants of the Kingdom were hettlage, in General, very generous: of the many hundreds of Hittite villages and towns around a dozen have already been excavated and examined. And it is a great luck.

So, the Hittites. They necity. The region is dwelling - Anatolian plateau. Time - XVIII-XII century BC Form of statehood - a Kingdom "not absolute monarchy". Language - Indo-European. Ancestry is unknown. Ethnic homeland is unknown. The offspring-gone.

If to speak about their history, originally the site of education of the Hittite Empire in the IV-III centuries B.C. there were more than a dozen ethnic areas. In one of them in the river basin Galis lived quite numerous people Hatta, thanks to which this region and has received the name "the heavens". For the first time under this name he mentioned in XXIII century BC

Stone relief of double-headed eagle of Katusetoostused same Hittite Kingdom refers to the period 1750-1180 years BC Three centuries in the history of this Kingdom - XVIII to the XVI BC - called Drevnekitaiskim period. At this time, according to many experts, who came into the region of the heavens Indo-Europeans under the conditional name "Hittites" United with aboriginal people Hatta. This symbiosis and science calls "Hittites".

What was a Hittite Kingdom at the beginning of its history? Its structure was built on the traditions of communal system. Hittite kings ruled jointly with the so-called bankusa, which unites all capable citizens. Pokusam was run by a Board of thulium, who represented and, accordingly, defended the interests of patrimonial aristocracy, mostly members of the Royal family: brothers of the king, his sons and other relatives. Inherits the king, at first, native son, and adopted nephew - his sister's son. Because Pincus and thulium very limited the power of the kings, on this ground between them often in disagreement, as evidenced by numerous written sources.

Interestingly, when the king died, and the Queen was going through it, it retains the title of Queen, in the reign of the new king, the wife of the latter was called just "the king's wife" and only after the death of the Dowager Empress has gained its status.

In the end of XVIII century B.C. the first dynasty of the reigning dynasty of Unity ceded power to another Royal house. One of its kings, Labama I (approx. 1675 - 1650 years BC), was a great conqueror and reformer. He managed to extend the borders of the Hittite Kingdom "from sea to sea". Contemporaries Laburni appreciated his work: the names of the king and his wife Tamandani became the titles of all subsequent Hittite kings and Queens. His successor was the nephew of Hattusili I (approx. 1650-1625 years BC) continued reformation: he moved the capital of the Kingdom in which once was the main centre of Hatta, Hattusa, after which the state was named "Hittite". Hattusili I have further expanded possession of the Hittites even Syria. In addition to successful conquests this king entered the history of the "instigator" of the Palace of the troubles, though he himself, of course, it is not believed. From the written sources we know that Hattusili I, ignoring tradition, was removed from the inheritance of his nephew. The pretext for this he found a more than convincing: the nephew stayed indifferent to the disease uncle. As a result of quarrels king opolkis themselves against many members of the kind, even your own children. To understand such a long vicissitudes rather curious: the scribes recorded on this issue many "performance" Hattusili I - eloquence he was not to occupy. After all the scrapes the new heir to the throne was adopted grandson of the king - Marsili with which, apparently, he quickly found understanding. Together they suppressed the emerging civil strife and made a March to the South, which in the Board of Mursili I (approx. 1625 - 1590 years BC) ended with the conquest of Babylon. Home last returned with a huge production. But his brilliant victories were happy few. Hittite know understood that the king strengthens the already strong power - Mursili was killed by the husband of his sister.

The sculptural image Begovoy Hittite top of solving internal problems, from the North to the Hittites attacked tribes Kaskov (branch same Adyghe tribes of the Caucasus, which is well known in Russian Chronicles under the name "kasogi"). They destroyed many cities of the Kingdom, and forever cut off from the Black sea. It was a big defeat, because the great Kingdom stretching from sea to sea", was not so. Meanwhile know captured more and more power. So much so, that at the time of king Telepinu (he rules about 1530-1500 years BC) thulium achieved the right not only to judge, but to execute kings. Moreover, without the consent of tulee the king could not execute its members and to take away their property. But it was not only defeat Telepinu. Around 1450 BC lucky dignitary not Hittite origin seized the throne and established a new Hittite dynasty. From this time began the so-called Novohatsky the period from the middle of the XV to the beginning of the twelfth century B.C. And the king became the absolute ruler: he was appointed his successor. Thus, Palace coups ceased to grow into civil strife.

The laws and the kings of the heavens

Land in the Hittite Empire belonged to the state. On the greater part of it was a large economy, which provided the king and members of his family. That is worked on the house of the king", "the house of the Queen", "the house of the Palace" - the local administration. Was and community sector, where land ownership took roots in pre-class era. In it, apparently, it was possible to buy and sell land. Elder community had quite a wide range of authority with judicial and administrative authorities. And on state and communal lands was widely used slave labor. Compulsory service to the king and payment to him of natural tax was called Sahan, labor service - Luzzi. Apparently, they spread out on a large part of the population, including on the congregation.

Here's a snippet of ratification of the law regulating agricultural relations: "If anyone will take a loan and harness ox, horse, mule or donkey, and he will fall or be devoured by wolves, or get lost and disappear, the damaged may pay for the full cost; but if he shall say: "From the hand of God he died," let him swear by that.

If a pig will go into the floor, on the field or in the garden, and the owner meadows, fields or gardens will beat her to death, then he shall bring this pig to its owner; if it returns, it will become a thief..."

The main seeds the Hittites were barley and related wheat - Emmer. They were made of flour and baked bread, grains - brewed beer. Were grown grapes, broke landing pomegranate, Apple-trees.

Here's how it looked diploma about the so-called conditional land tenure: the Estate of Tuatapere: 1 male, Tuatara; 1 boy, Aruandele; 1 woman, Azzie; 2 girls, Anitti and Chantasia; (total) 5 persons; 2 ox, 22 sheep, 6 draught oxen...; [18] sheep, and their 2 jarocki and two sheep; 18 goats, goats 3 goats and 1 kid; (total) 36 heads of small cattle; 1 house. Pasture for oxen - 1 acre meadows in the city Parcella. 3 1/2 acres of vineyard and 40 Apple trees, 42 pomegranate..."

By the estates of the Hittite divisions do not coincide with the class. The entire population was divided into two groups: the "free" - it consisted of persons exempt from duties in favor of the state and the Church. These were members of the indigenous communities of the Hittite cities. Of them were recruited by the ruling elite. The second group - "not free" - that is, those persons, which were distributed to the state and the temple service. Among the "not free" producers standing outside communities, slaves, enslaving debtors, mercenaries, serfs of the land owners. The latter, by the way, inagYes there were quite rich and had their own slaves.

The Supreme power in the Hittite Empire was "the great king" (Taberna), which in Novohatsky period was provided with the special divinity and titled "the Sun".

In the beginning of XIV century BC in the heavens comes to power usurper of Suppiluliuma I (approx. 1380-1335 years BC) was a talented politician and military leader who conquered almost all of Asia Minor and eventually three major wars managed to conquer Egypt and to win East Mediterranean up to the southern borders of Palestine.

In the end, the Hittite Kingdom dependent territories extended from the basin of the Chorokhi in Transcaucasia to the South of Palestine and from the Aegean sea and Cyprus to the Assyrian and Babylonian borders. Babylonia and Achaean power considered necessary to maintain friendship with Suppiluliumas. All these successes, however, threatened the Hittites fateful consequences. State talents Suppiluliuma put under the authority of the Hittites huge spaces, control of which far exceeded the capacity of the Hittite Kingdom. Therefore, the existence of a huge Empire, founded by Suppiluliumas, his successors had to support almost incessant campaigns against rebellious margins and encroach on the ownership of the heavens other powers. Fierce war is slowly but surely overburden forces of the Hittite Kingdom. At last the Hittite kings - Hudhali IV and his two sons, the Kingdom of fighting "on two fronts" in the Upper Mesopotamia and Western Asia Minor (where besides the Achaeans faces invading here from the Balkans by the Phrygians). Tudhaliya IV was able eventually to drop the Achaeans and defeat Ilion. For example, Homer in the Iliad mentions failed war Ilios and allied sungariskiy Phrygians against Amazon young days Priam. Caucasian Amazons were in Greek legends substitution of the Hittites. When the last of the Hittite king, ironically called Suppiluliuma (II), the Hittites again invaded Cyprus, but their days were already numbered.

Royal gates of the Hattusa

Echo Ilion

In the second half of the thirteenth century B.C. the population of the Balkan-Aegean region continued to fight. As can be seen from the comparison of Greek historical traditions with Hittite and Egyptian data, as well as archaeological materials, proving, by the way, high reliability General subjects)at the end of the thirteenth century B.C. the Greek Peloponnesus had been devastated by the invasion from the North. Then around 1200 BC Mycenaean king Agamemnon rallied around Achaean kings and around 1190 B.C. Achaean army moved fleet West Asia Minor and attacked Ilion. The Trojan war broke Greek epic legends. According to them, to help Ilios a "contingent"may be sent and the Hittites. About the same time (according to the legend, at the end of the Trojan war) tribes Plastov (Pelasgians), related to the Greeks, and Phrygian Miusov, otherwise Moscow, rushed in northwestern Asia Minor and was close to the Ilium. The result is unclear to us exactly collisions of all of these forces in the North-West of the Peninsula, the following happened: the Achaeans defeated Ilion (archaeologically is the destruction of Troy VII century BC). Then all the men, including flies went deep into the Hittite Kingdom, which did not survive this attack. How and where died last strength Hittite yard, unknown. Fly defeated the Hattusa, other lands of the Hittites, and took them, destroying a significant part of the population. The ethnic group of the Hittites ceased to exist. Asia minor was then corridor, windswept: the Hittites during their existence infringe many tribes from the North, West, East. Whereas, for example, Egypt had a more favorable geographical position and population of Egypt was many more than in the Hittite Empire: legions, devastating Asia Minor, reached it less and already undermined forces.
The great battle of the Hittites
"How skilled were Hittite kings in the battle tactics, best demonstrates in detail described in one of the Egyptian text of the battle of Kadesh. Hittite army, which started the camp Kadesh, managed to escape from the Egyptian scouts. Unsuspecting Egyptians came to the city and began to set up camp. At this time, the band Hittite chariots invisible to the enemy left the city through the opposite gate, crossed the Orontes and inflicted a crushing blow to the centre of the Egyptian columns. Probably the Egyptian army would be destroyed completely, if at this moment to rescue her not arrived separate regiment, who moved to Kadesh on the other hand and, in turn, has caught the Hittites, ruined the camp. Thanks to this happy coincidence Egyptian king saved remnants of his army and was able to present his subjects battle with the Hittites a great victory ... it Should be borne in mind that the army who are against the Egyptians Kadesh, was the most powerful of all that has ever managed to collect the Hittite kings... " "Hittite chariot differs in design from Egypt. And that, and the other wheel with six spokes. But the Egyptian chariot designed for two riders - the driver and the warrior, and the Hittite, slightly more massive, three, since the features of attack and defense were divided between the two fighters. Offensive weapon served spears and bows. Along with rectangular used shields-shaped double wide blade battle axe... Thanks to additional fighter Hittite chariot got an advantage in melee, which could follow the first attack."

The Hittites guardian of honor

The culture of the Hittites was a combination of different traditions - Indo-European (Hittite and Luwian), hattsko and Mesopotamian. The Supreme God, the patron Saint of statehood was considered in Indo-European tradition, the God of storms. Not less worshiped the goddess of the sun city of Arini, but hattsko origin. It was considered a wife of the God of storms. Popular were the gods and goddesses of fertility, which was and Telepinu, is dying and resurrecting the deity associated with the change of seasons. Exceptional enjoyed the influence of the goddess of love, destruction and war of Sauske. Minor God gate Apollon was, apparently, a type of the Greek God Apollo. As a result of gradual systematization cults in the XIII century BC there was created a single Pantheon of gods that are rock reliefs city Yaz?l?kaya near the Hattusa, depicting two opposite procession male and female deities, standing on the beasts and birds.

Among preserved works of the Hittite literature very interesting edifying stories, as well as detailed Royal "annals" and "autobiography", made probably by scribes, but has a clear imprint of the identity of the customer is king. Vivid imagery that emit the most dramatic moments of history, these texts are conducting certain ethical motive: knightly generosity. The Hittites liked to stress that they do evil except for evil, and even then could abandon revenge defeated enemy, moral being lifted up over it. In a detailed "autobiography" Hattusili III this king considers necessary specially to justify in front of an audience overthrow nephew, referring to the intolerable oppression on his part, and also the sanction of the goddess of love Suski, its patron Saint.

However from my own mouth

From the Hittite Kingdom, which existed in the Eastern-Central Asia Minor from the XVIII XII century BC, and in particular from the second, so-called Novokhatska, period (from the middle of the XV century till the end), before we reached the richest written tradition. It presents mainly the materials found during the excavation of the Hittite capital of Hattusa (modern city - bogazkoy), including literature. Like any other, Hittite literature refers primarily to the man and his doings. Nevertheless, it practically is not engaged in by the person in itself, his inner world.

Individuals interested in it almost exclusively as a subject of interpersonal relationships. Here Hittites occupy primarily aimed act - the good and the evil one person knowingly to cause another, and the problem of judgment for them on the part of the other. So, the first person to cause evil on others unconditionally condemned. In addition, it was felt that this act in itself brings down upon the head of the guilty, the court of the gods with the serious consequences. Judging by the context, this court does not even have to ask, it was happening automatically. The Hittites believed that unprovoked harming outraged by the very nature of the world, custodians and locations for which here are the gods, by the way, in and of themselves (the Hittites), no more just and good, than people. As a result, the success in the controversial case was for the Hittites significant evidence of the correctness of the winner. So, Hattusili III took the throne of his nephew, left extensive text, where justified their revolt unjustified harassment, which he had allegedly been subjected. In proof of this he stated: "If with me he (the first) began to quarrel, except the gods would scatter the righteous of the Great king before the small king. But now due to the fact that he is (was) to quarrel with me, the gods on his court humiliated in front of me".

Accordingly, novokhatska sovereigns, describing his war, very strongly emphasize that the first, and unprovoked blow was inflicted not by them, but to them. Pointing to this strike, they at once appealed to the court of the gods, and the opinion of the people. In the Acts of Suppiluliumas", for example, was written with his son, the Hittite king, bradua with Egypt, finds it necessary to justify their actions by the Egyptians in the following words: "I was to you. But you I suddenly have wronged! You attacked the Governor of Cilantro, which I delivered from the Hurrians. When I heard about it, I was angry, and I sent Voinov and his chariot commanders". Later, having undergone new provocations on the part of the Egyptians, he instantabout refers to the gods, saying, "Oh gods! I did not commit evil, but people of Egypt it was done, and they attacked the border of my country".

In the historic preambles to the treaties novokhatska kings attempted to mention that they do no evil to its Treaty partners. So, Mursili II in the contract with one of the Asia minor kings repeats: "I, the Sun (the so-titled novokhatska sovereigns. A.N.), never no evil thing you did," "I safeguarded Michailovas (your father) and he can do no evil". So, only caused you unprovoked kick allows to cause a response evil.

What, however, do, if you were subjected to unprovoked attack? A special case of valor, raising people, were considered in this case the refusal of revenge. The subject of special pride and boasting of the Hittites were the situations in which they did not retaliate at all or in a comparable scale. Examples of this approach, it is unique in the ancient Near East, in the Hittite literature innumerable. Even drevneegipetskie sovereigns left in their inscriptions passages of this kind: "Let it (referring to the rebellious daughter of the king of Hattusilis I, pardoned them. A.N.) eating and drinking! You don't do her any harm! She was doing evil. I answered her not doing evil! But I have not called the father, and I don't call his daughter". Or another fragment: "And he said unto the king Telepinu about their enemies, in an attempt to kill him. A.N.): "Let them go down themselves, and they shall be to live, and let them eat and drink. Evil same does not cause them any Telepinu. And so I keep saying, I have done evil, I am the evil't do that!"

If in the end offended yet made a fair punishment for the offender, for it was considered a good practice to emphasize his long-suffering, expressed in the fact that he had endured insults, not wanting to give evil for evil, but I have exhausted all the limits of peace. Mursili II, after the trial against his stepmother Tamandani, the widow of his late father, repeats and repeats in prayer to the gods that he had endured a series of abuses and crimes of the accused and struck her when she really outdid itself, kill witchcraft wife and children of Mursili.

Close to this lies another view of the Hittites: it was considered a very decent defiantly give the enemy the opportunity to defend himself. Mursili II boasts: "I have not done evil, Michailovas also started a quarrel with me, he incited against my country Picassa and people heavens - my subjects, and he would go on to me by the war. When I, Sun, heard that, I thought him no harm and did not do anything bad to him, and said to him: "I will go again to straighten this thing... And I wrote to Michailovas: "Come to me!" As Michailovas saw his sin, he replied no and ran away... thus quite denouncing his guilt before all".

In the very recompense evil for evil was considered necessary to observe certain decency, not by any means without analysis (also, incidentally, unique to Asia motive). Interestingly, described the Hittite concept has nothing to do with familiar to us Christian "forgiveness" and ascending to it modern "humanity", based on human proximity to the "middle" over any hostility. Any culture distinguishes worthy deeds from a particularly gallant. As to the second, it does not have the right to expect or demand, but can only praise and extol. This act of a free good will "in excess of justice" the Hittites believed forgiveness. It was dictated not by the kindness and generosity: forgiving the enemy, the Hittite was guided not by compassion, and contemptuous disdain for him. So to say, on the principle of "hands on you don't want to dirty".

Especially clearly seen in drevnerusskom the text of the siege she was the King then said (to the commanders on the enemy city): "...Be careful! Not that hostile) the city will be completely destroyed and will happen sin and (unnecessary) devastation. If you're prudent, the city will not be destroyed"... They answered the king, "We will be careful and avoid sin devastation of the city." Then the king said to them, "If this isn't die, it will be a sin is a crime!" And then they said: "Eight times we were going to storm, and now the city, although it will be destroyed (in the course of such a fierce siege), but sin we will not make (as fierce resistance makes the destruction justified)". And the king was pleased with the answers."

So, the generosity of the king was dictated not pity the inhabitants of the city (he is pleased that he will be able to destroy them as much as possible without compromising its credit!), and the desire not to defile himself, his honor unjustified cruelty. So forgiveness in any degree is not considered obligatory: in fact it turns out that the worthy answer to evil was just full of revenge. Even grinenetsky Hattusili I said: "At enmity I respond with hatred!", and Hattusili III that was so stressed before us your generosity, in the same text with undisguised satisfaction writes about his other enemies, seeing there is no contradiction: "my Enemies and envious goddess Ishtar (...) in the hand I put it in, and I with them have committed". Or: "Goddess Ishtar me my envious enemies and opponents on the court in arms gave. One of them was killed by arms who had died on the appointed day, but I'm with them all killed!" In fact, all of justification Hattusili in General is based on the fact that self-defense, retaliation fair.

If the offender had time to surrender himself into the hands of the offended, to plead guilty and ask for mercy, forgiveness was considered almost mandatory, at least, expected, although nominally the case was still in the will of the offended. This asks forgiveness - in fact, almost requires Mursili the gods in his "Prayer during the plague": "This sin I recognized indeed (...) before the gods (...): That's true, we did it. But after I recognized sin (...), Yes softened soul (...) gods (...). I'll say about it: If the slave commits any offence, misdemeanour this before its owner acknowledges that the owner soften... and that slave will not be punished". The meaning of this passage entirely fit in the Russian saying "Povinnoy the head of the sword cuts". Mursili not only asked, but willingly gave such forgiveness, strongly emphasizing this in their contracts and "the Annals": "When people (hostile) of the city of Tukuma I caught sight from a distance, they came to meet me: "my Lord! Forbid that we all have plundered for (your) Hattusa, as it was in the city of Arisa... and not guonei us in the Place, and make us their foot-soldiers and bolesnicima! And then I, the Sun, not ordered to plunder the city Tukumu, and those three thousand prisoners that of Toccami took (for theft) at the Royal Palace, I made their foot-soldiers and bolesnicima".

So, in a variety of texts novohatsky "tsarist political journalism" is a novel ethical concept. According to it, if the person does not do evil first, and in response to someone else's evil spare the guilty "from a position of strength" (that is subject to prior victory over him), and also limits itself in the choice of funds during the struggle, he enjoys special respect additionally puffed up before the enemy and has the right to boast themselves before the gods and men. In other words, he is "a strong position" in interpersonal relations, allowing him to be proud of in front of others, which they have to recognize and authorize the pride.

Did the Hittites some thoughtful ethical justification for such a concept? Apparently, Yes. Mursili II in one of the treaties casual mentions: "Then, as people (in General) tend to do the crooked..." In the "Prayer during the plague," he says, "Gods, my Lord, it is done: all sin." This composite communication helps to understand the logic of the Hittite ethical views. If all people sin and do evil, consistent and fully recompense evil for evil will prove to be simply a path to self-destruction. Opening here a continuous cycle of evil must be broken anywhere, and special honor to give just one who is able to break his gracious forgiveness. In many respects this position resembles grossmans "rebuke sin, and forgive me a sinner" with one important difference: that this path has not led to a promotion and multiplication of evil, forgiveness will remain optional and will be allowed only from the position of power".

This concept is key to passing through many works Hittite literature opposition between "bad" and "good" people. Apparently, flies, defeated the Hittites were still "good"...